Prepositions "On", "At", and "In"

A preposition is a word that links a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to some other part of the sentence.

Prepositions can be tricky for English learners. There is no definite rule or formula for choosing a preposition. In the beginning stage of learning the language, you should try to identify a preposition when reading or listening in English and recognize its usage. 

• to the office
• at the desk
• on the table
• in an hour
• about myself

A preposition is used to show direction, location, or time, or to introduce an object. 

Auxiliary Verbs "Can/Could" and "May/Might/Must"

Can

Used to express ability (to be able to do something):

• I can make jewelry.
• He can’t speak French.
• Can you open this jar?

Used to ask for permission:

• Can I use your bathroom?
• Can I leave now?
• Can I raise the volume?

Auxiliary Verbs "Will/Would" and "Shall/Should"

The verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, and must cannot be the main (full) verbs alone. They are used as auxiliary verbs only and always need a main verb to follow. 

Will

Used to express desire, preference, choice, or consent:

Auxiliary Verbs "Be", "Do", "Have"

An auxiliary verb helps the main (full) verb and is also called a "helping verb." With auxiliary verbs, you can write sentences in different tenses, moods, or voices. Auxiliary verbs are: be, do, have, will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought, etc. 

• I think I should study harder to master English.
• I am having a cup of coffee.
• You have been practicing hard.
• It was written by a petitioner.
• You may choose what you like.

The verb forms of be, do, and have can be used either as a main (full) verb or an auxiliary verb. The following examples show these verbs used as auxiliary verbs. 

1. "Be" as an auxiliary verb

Mood for Grammar

A mood shows the writer’s attitude toward what he/she is saying.

Indicative Mood states an actuality or fact.

• We will go to see a movie this Sunday.
• I’ll follow you.

Imperative Mood makes a request.

• Let’s go to see a movie this weekend!
• Please stop bugging me!

Subjunctive Mood expresses a doubtful condition (contrary to fact) and is often used with an "if" clause.

Active Voice and Passive Voice

Verbs are either active or passive in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a do-er. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is not a do-er. It is shown with by + do-er or is not shown in the sentence.
Passive voice is used when the action is the focus, not the subject. It is not important (or not known) who does the action. 

• The window is broken. (It is not known who broke the window, or it is not important to know who broke the window.)
• The class has been canceled. (The focus is on the class being canceled. It is not important to know who canceled it.)
• The passive voice is often used. (The focus is on the passive voice. It is not important to explain who the writer is.)

Passive voice should be avoided when you want more clarity in writing. However, in some cases, you need to use passive voice to stress the action, not the actor. Also, passive voice can be considered more polite, as it sounds less aggressive or dramatic.

Infinitives Part 2

Commonly, an infinitive is used with the subject it. The sentence structure is "It is                      + infinitive.…" It refers to the infinitive. This expression is used in many ways. 

• It is time to do math.
• It is common to think that way.
• It is appropriate to keep a low profile.
• It was nice to see you.
• It was my pleasure to meet you.
• It was my honor to have dinner with you.
• It is good to see you.
• It was great to go on a trip with them.

Infinitives Part 1

An infinitive is a verb combined with the word to. Most often, an infinitive acts as a noun in the sentence. Less frequently, it acts as an adjective or an adverb.

• I want to go home early today.
• I hope to be chosen as a member.
• I prefer to go there earlier.
• You need to consider various rules in writing sentences.
• You have to explain your reasoning in detail.
• You might wish to act as a teacher.
• To leave for a vacation is my only wish at this time.
• A common mistake in a relationship is not to trust the other person.
• Help me to save the trees!
• To be mentally healthy, you must read books.
• Do you want me to fill out this form?

Gerunds

A gerund (verb + ing) acts like a noun in a sentence.

• Seeing is believing.
• Running a marathon is not an easy thing to do.
• Watching TV is sometimes harmful.
• Eating is always fun.
• My hobby is painting.
• She loves babysitting her sister.
• I like listening to music.
• I wasted all my afternoon by taking a nap.

regular Verbs

Regular verbs form their past and past participle by adding ed (d).

Base Verb	Past	Past Participle
learn	learned	learned
study	studied	studied
cook	cooked	cooked
solve	solved	solved
ask	asked	asked
watch	watched	watched
listen	listened	listened

Irregular verbs do not have definite rules, but there are a few patterns.

Perfect Progressive Tense

The perfect progressive tense describes actions that repeated over a period of time in the past, are continuing in the present, and/or will continue in the future.

The present perfect progressive tense tells you about a continuous action that was initiated in the past and finished at some point in the past; however, the action has some relation to the present time. Use have/has + been + ing. 

• It has been raining, and the street is still wet.
• I have been running, and I am still tired.
• She has been practicing the piano, and she is much better now.

The past perfect progressive tense illustrates a continuous action in the past that was completed before another past action. Use had + been + ing. 

• It had been raining, and the street was still wet.
• I had been running, and I was still tired.
• She had been practicing the piano, and she had gotten much better.

Progressive and Perfect Tense

Progressive Tense

The progressive tense involves action that is, was, or will be in progress at a certain time. In the progressive tense, verbs are formed with a "be" verb + ing.

run

• I am running a marathon right now. (present progressive)
• I was running a marathon at this time last year. (past progressive)
• I will be running a marathon next Sunday. (future progressive)

eat

• I am eating lunch now.
• I was eating lunch when you saw me.
• I will be eating lunch in the meeting.

learn

Simple Tense

Verb tense tells you when the action happens. There are three main verb tenses: present, past, and future. Each main tense is divided into simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive tenses. 

	Simple	Progressive	Perfect	Perfect Progressive
Present	finish	am/is/are finishing	have/has finished	have/has been finishing
Past	finished	was/were finishing	had finished	had been finishing
Future	will finish	will be finishing	will have finished	will have been finishing

Things to remember about simple tense:

     a. Present tense is the original verb form. 
     b. Past tense has a few patterns. 
     c. Future tense needs will (shall) + verb. 

run

Adverbs

Adverbs modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

An adverb tells more about a verb in the sentence.

• The fire engine runs fast.
• Listen to his speech carefully.
• I browse the web frequently.
• It rained hard.

An adverb describes more about an adjective in the sentence.

• The news is very surprising!
• The coffee is extremely hot, so be careful.
• Nature is really amazing!

An adverb modifies another adverb in the sentence.

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Comparative adjectives compare two things. Superlative adjectives compare more than two things

Commonly, adjectives that contain only one syllable or end in 'y' use 'er' to form comparatives and 'est' to form superlatives. For adjectives ending in y, change the 'y' to 'i' before adding the 'er' or 'est'.

• old – older – oldest
• young – younger – youngest
• pretty – prettier – prettiest
• long – longer – longest
• short – shorter – shortest
• bright – brighter – brightest
• close – closer – closest
• happy – happier - happiest

Adjectives with two or more syllables do not change but instead add more to form comparatives and most to form superlatives.

• respectable – more respectable – most respectable
• beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful
• preferable – more preferable – most preferable
• hardworking – more hardworking – most hardworking

Some adjectives have different forms of comparatives and superlatives.

• good – better – best
• bad – worse – worst
• little – less – least
• much (many) – more – most
• far – further - furthest

The word than typically appears in comparative sentences.

• Amy is smarter than Betty.
• Chad is stronger than Dan.
• Greg is more diligent than his brother.
• I have more apples than he.
• She likes him more than me.

Superlatives are typically accompanied by the word the.

• Tom is the oldest man in town.
• Paul is the tallest boy in the neighborhood.
• That shade of blue is the most beautiful color.
• This is the longest song that I have ever heard.

[Quiz 8.1]

Write the appropriate comparative or superlative form of the word cold in each blank.

Yesterday was a cold day. Today is                      than yesterday. Tomorrow will be the                      day yet. 

[Quiz 8.2]

Which of the following sentences is incorrect?

1) Mary is shorter than Jane.
2) The moon is more closer to the earth than the sun.
3) I have the best score on the exam.

Adjectives

Adjectives describe or modify nouns.

I like fairy tales. A fairy tale is an imaginary story that has unrealistic characters in a fantastic background. It makes me forget about the realworld and refreshes my tired mind.

Adjectives generally appear immediately before the noun.

• A pretty girl
• Red flowers
• A long stick
• Heavy boxes
• Warm weather

Commonly, adjectives of opposite meaning are formed by adding a prefix such as un, in, or dis.

Action Verbs

Action verbs express action and are the most common verbs.

Action verbs need s at the end with third-person, singular subjects.

• He eats bread.
• She walks to the station.
• It floats on the sea.

Negative sentences need do not, does not, or did not.

• I do not eat bread.
• He does not eat bread.
• You did not walk to the station.
• It does not float on the sea.

Interrogative sentences begin with do, does, or did.

'Be' Verbs

A verb shows action or a state of being.

I go home. Home is my place to rest. I like the smell of my house. I feel totally relaxed. Home refreshes me. At home, I get ready for a new day.

"Be" verbs indicate a state of being.

Verbs must match subjects.

• I am a doctor.
• He is sleepy.
• We are here.

Negative sentences need ‘not' after the verb.

• I am not a doctor.
• He is not sleepy.
• We are not there.

The verb comes first in interrogative sentences.

Pronouns

A pronoun takes the place of a noun. 

Example story:

Mary is one of the heads of the ToJi Corporation. Mary works with Mr. James and Mr. James' son Tom. Mr. James and Mr. James' son Tom are experts in biochemistry. Mary, Mr. James, and Tom researched and invented a drug for cancer treatment. 

If the story above is written using pronouns:

Mary is one of the heads of the ToJi Corporation. She works with Mr. James and his son Tom. He and his son Tom are experts in biochemistry.They researched and invented a drug for cancer treatment. 

Personal Pronouns

Count Nouns vs. Non-Count Nouns

Count nouns

Can be counted as one or more.

• pen, computer, bottle, spoon, desk, cup, television, chair, shoe, finger, flower, camera, stick, balloon, book, table, comb, etc.

Take an s to form the plural.

• pens, computers, bottles, spoons, desks, cups, televisions, chairs, shoes, fingers, flowers, cameras, sticks, balloons, books, tables, combs, etc.

Work with expressions such as (a few, few, many, some, every, each, these, and the number of).

• a few pens, a few computers, many bottles, some spoons, every desk, each cup, these televisions, the number of chairs, a few shoes, a few fingers, many flowers, some cameras, every stick, each balloon, these books, the number of tables, many combs, etc.

Work with appropriate articles (a, an, or the).

Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns are used to indicate ownership.

Possessive nouns usually are formed by adding an apostrophe (') and s.

• John's book
• Kerry's car
• Grandma's mirror

When a noun is plural and ends in s, just add an apostrophe (').

• The kids' toys
• My parents' house
• The teachers' lounge

If two people own one thing, add the apostrophe and s to the second person only.

• John and Mary's new house
• David and Sue's wedding

Singular and Plural Nouns

A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.

Usually, the first page of a grammar book tells you about nouns. Nouns give names of concrete or abstract things in our lives. As babies learn "mom," "dad," or "milk" as their first word, nouns should be the first topic when you study a foreign language. 

For the plural form of most nouns, add s.

• bottle – bottles
• cup – cups
• pencil – pencils
• desk – desks
• sticker – stickers
• window – windows

For nouns that end in ch, x, s, or s sounds, add es.

UNIT - II English Grammar Exercise

UNIT - II
COMPETENCIES

A LISTENING: Listening and doing
B SPEAKING: Telling jokes and riddles Describing an experience
C READING: Understanding explicitly stated information Understanding information not explicitly stated
D VOCABULARY: Using syllabification for reading and spelling purposes
Giving the correct spelling for words
Giving the correct spelling for adjectives
E STUDY SKILLS: Referring to the dictionary for grammatical information
F GRAMMAR: Using the past perfect, past perfect continuous, future perfect and future perfect continuous tenses
G WRITING: Expanding headlines
H OCCUPATIONAL COMPETENCY: Reading and understanding the content of travel time-tables (train timings)
I STRATEGIC COMPETENCY: Recording one’s speech for the purpose of self assessment
J CREATIVE COMPETENCY: Writing about one’s neighbour

A. Listening

English Grammar Exercise Part 3

POEM
TREE

Under the greenwood tree
Who loves to lie with me,
And turn his merry note
Unto the sweet bird’s throat,
Come hither, come hither, come hither:
Here shall he see
No enemy
But winter and rough weather.
Who doth ambition shun,
And loves to live i’ the sun,
Seeking the food he eats,
And pleased with what he gets,
Come hither, come hither, come hither:
Here shall he see
No enemy
But winter and rough weather.
                                                       - W Shakespeare

English Grammar Exercise Part 3

I. Strategic competency
Read the following statements. Give your opinion on each of the statements by marking the relevant box:

English Grammar Exercises part 2

G. Writing
1. Think of the few occasions when you have to fill in a form.
1. Admission
2. Bank transaction
3. .............................
4. ...............................
5. ..................................
2. What sort of information do you normally have to provide?
1. Name
2. Details of parents : Father Mother
3. Date of Birth
4. Age
5. ..................................
6. .................................
7. .................................
8. ................................
3. Fill in the following columns:
Write your name in capitals                : ...............................
Strike out that which is not applicable : student / employee
Put a tick in the relevant box               : |_|Female |_|Male

Your signature                                    : .............................

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English Grammar Exercises part 1

HE STILL LIVES
‘He hath not lived that lives not after death.’ (In this lesson, it is the message more than the matter that matters.) (The domestic terminal at Meenambakkam Airport in Chennai was buzzing with excitement. One could see people of different hues and moods. Mrs. Radha Kannan, a low-profile social worker and Founder-Director of a foundation for the differently abled, boards an aircraft bound for Delhi. When she settles in her seat and buckles up her seatbelt she notices a young lady sitting next to her seat sobbing. Mrs. Kannan, quite unusual of herself, gets into a conversation with her).
Mrs RK : Excuse me. What has happened? Has anything gone wrong? You almost broke down. If it’s not too personal and if it’s not too much for you to take me into confidence you can share your feelings with me. Sharing after all, lessens one’s burden.
The Lady : Thanks for your concern, Madam. I am Catherine Rudolph from Vienna. I’m reserved and slightly reticent by nature. I don’t take to strangers easily. At the same time I understand your concern. Somehow or the other I feel that I should open up to you. May I know your name, please?
Mrs RK : I’m Radha Kannan, a small-time social worker with a big vision. We run a foundation in Chennai, for the differently abled. You may call me Radha.
Cathy : Thank you, Radha. I had two children – a boy and a girl. I lost my daughter who was beautifully named Philo. She died of Cystic Fibrosis, an incurable congenital disease that affects young children, especially girls.
Mrs RK : Is it such a deadly disease?
Cathy : Yes it’s a killer disease. It affects the pancreas, and the lungs are blocked with thick mucus. My daughter was just two years when the symptoms showed and she survived another two years. Only a month ago we lost our precious child. The thought of my lost child is all over me all the time. It’s painful, Radha, very painful. Do you know what she asked us when she knew that she was going to die? (drops of tears roll down the cheeks of Catherine)
Radha : Compose yourself, Cathy.Cathy : She asked us what would happen to her after her death. We told her that she would go to heaven and become an angel. After this every morning she would ask us why she had not grown wings yet as she had read in stories that all angels had wings. We assured her that she would get her wings the moment she reached heaven, and that God would personally fix the wings on her sides. (Radha’s eyes moisten as tears well up in her eyes.)

Read the following story and identify the words with which you are not familiar. Find out how these words are used in this context.

The Cherry Tree
When George Washington was about six years old, he was presented with a small axe. Like most little boys, he was extremely fond of it. He went about cutting everything that came his way.

One day, as he was wandering about the garden, he happened to find a beautiful, young cherry tree. His father had planted this tree. Naturally he was very fond of it. George tried the edge of hisaxe on the bark of the tree. Ultimately the cherry died. Sometime after this, his father found out what had happened to his favourite tree. He came home in great anger and wanted to know who the guilty person was. But nobody could tell him anything about it. Just then George, with his little axe came into the room.

“George,” said his father, “do you know who killed my beautiful little cherry, yonder in the garden?”
This was a difficult question for George to answer. He was silent for a moment. But quickly recovering himself, he answered,

“I don’t want to hide the fact from you father. Sorry, I was the one who cut it with my new axe.”
The anger subsided. Taking the boy lovingly in his arms, George’s father said, “My son, you should not be afraid to tell the truth. Telling a lie is as sinful as cutting a 100 trees.”
E. Study Skills
One would get the following grammatical information if he refers to a standard dictionary.
1. the part of speech of a word
(whether it is a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.)
2. If it is a noun whether it is countable [c] or uncountable [u]
3. If it is a verb, whether it is transitive [vt] or intransitive [vi]
4. The derivatives if any
Task: Write the dictionary entries for the following words. modern, oasis, provide, sleep, medicine, grow
F. Grammar
Look at the following sentences.
1. Trees/ preserve/ the soil.

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